NIOS Class 12 Psychology Chapter 20 Answers
INTEXT QUESTIONS 20.1
1. List the various sources of attitude formation.
Ans: Various sources of attitude formation are:
a. Classical conditioning
b. Instrumental conditioning
c. Observational learning
d. Social comparison
e. Reference group
Ans:
2. State whether the following statements are True or False
a. The ‘affective’ component of attitudes is related to the thoughts and mental process.
Ans: False
b. Attitude formation through classical conditioning involves positive and negative reinforcements.
Ans: False
c. Observational learning does not contribute to attitude formation.
Ans: False
d. Attitudes comprise of true components.
Ans: True
INTEXT QUESTIONS 20.2
1. Match the following:
| 1. Source characteristic | i. logical argument |
| 2. Target characteristic | ii. Expertise. |
| 3. Message characteristic | iii. openness to new ideas |
Ans:
1. ii.
2. iii.
3. i
2. List the three characteristics that influence the process of attitude change.
Ans: The three characteristics that influence attitude change are:
- Source characteristics
- Message characteristics
- Target characteristics
INTEXT QUESTIONS 20.3
1. Match the following
| 1. Prejudice | i. Behaviour |
| 2. Discrimination | ii. cognitions |
| 3. Stereotypes | iii. affect |
Ans:
1. iii.
2. ii.
3. I.
2. List various ways of reducing stereotypes.
Ans: Strategies for Reducing Stereotypes
- 1. Ensuring that any form of biased and negative beliefs and behaviour is not positively reinforced in any form.
- 2. Ensuring that children as well as adults are exposed to role models that do not encourage any form of stereotypical thoughts and prejudice.Â
- 3. Narrow social identity based on any form of group affiliation should not be encouraged.
- 4. De-emphasize in-group-out-group categorization.Â
- 5. Developing an inclusive and encompassing attitude so that individuals can appreciate and respect the diversity and heterogeneity of various types of social groups.
TERMINAL QUESTIONS
1. What are the sources of attitude formation?
Ans: Attitudes can be learned or acquired through various sources. The primary sources are:
- 1. Attitude formation through classical conditioning
- 2. Attitude formation through operant conditioning
- 3. Attitude formation through modeling/observational learning
- 4. Attitude formation through social comparison
- 5. Attitude formation through group and cultural norms
- 6. Attitude formation through exposure to information
2. Exaplin the characteristics of source that can impact the process of attitude change?
Ans:
- Attitude Formation through Classical Conditioning: Classical conditioning is a basic form of learning in which an initially neutral stimulus acquires the potential to evoke responses through repeated pairing with another stimulus. For example, a student may not show any emotional response to a fountain pen he/she has recently purchased. However, it so happened that each time the student wrote the exam with this pen, he/she scored very good marks. This may lead the student to associate happiness with that pen.
- Attitude Formation through Operant Conditioning: Instrumental conditioning is another basic form of learning in which responses that lead to positive/rewarding outcomes or that is instrumental in avoiding negative outcomes are strengthened.
- Attitude Formation through Modelling: Formation of attitude is also possible through the process of observational learning/modelling. Several behaviors are learned by watching the activities of others and the outcome of such activities. For example, A child may watch his/her grandparents being respected and taken care of by everyone in the family. The child may acquire the same behavioral patterns and develop a positive attitude towards aged people in general.
- Attitude Formation through Social Comparison: Attitude may also be formed through the process of social comparison, according to which we are constantly comparing ourselves with others with the desire to hold ‘right’ views about social reality. This comparison may lead us to acquire attitudes from people we admire or people who serve as a frame of reference for us.
- Learning attitudes through group or cultural norms: Very often, we learn attitudes through the norms of our group or culture. Norms are unwritten rules about behavior that people are expected to show under specific circumstances. Over time, these norms may get reflected in our attitudes.
- Learning through exposure to information: A person may acquire a certain attitude on the basis of the information that he/she is exposed to. The sources of information can be many, such as newspapers, books, the internet, TV, movies, and so on. For example, these days, a lot of online campaigns regarding waste management are being circulated. This information helps help young children to adopt a positive attitude towards waste management by gaining information about the process of waste management as well as its benefits.
3. How is the nature of message and the target important for attitude change?
Ans:
Message characteristics
Various characteristics of messages that can impact attitude change are:
- Number of messages: Research has supported the view that increasing the number of messages enhances its persuasive impact because of the increased amount of information favouring attitude change, as now the target would be exposed to a lot of arguments suggesting a change in attitude will be appropriate.
- Repetition of message: For the first several times, it is also considered to be conducive for attitude change, as through repetition of messages, the target’s attention gets captured, making the process of attitude change more likely.
- Logical/Emotional Appeal of the message also has an impact on the process of attitude change. A message could have a logical or rational appeal in terms of factual information or an emotional appeal in terms of being able to trigger various emotions in the target of that communication.Â
- The channel of communication i.e., the mode in which a message is presented, also has the potential to impact attitude change. For instance, research has shown that face-to-face communication is more effective than mass media in bringing about an attitude change, as face-to-face interaction makes the message more personal and attention-grabbing.
Target characteristics
Qualities of the target, such as moods, personality traits like openness to experiences, as well as knowledge related to the area of concern, etc., may influence the likelihood and extent of attitude change.Â
- Research has shown that people who are in a good mood are more likely to change their attitudes compared to others, as they tend to display greater flexibility and less rigorous processing of persuasive messages.Â
- People who are not very rigid in their mindset and are willing to exercise flexibility and are open to new thoughts and opinions, change more easily.
4. How are stereotypes, prejudice ,and discrimination related with one another.
Ans: Often, stereotypes consist of beliefs or cognitions about undesirable characteristics of the target group, and they lead to prejudice, which has negative effects like hatred and dislike towards members of specific groups.
Prejudice may also get translated into discrimination, the behavioral component, whereby people behave less positively towards a particular target group compared to another group that they favor.Â
Often, these cognitive, affective, and behavioral manifestations of attitude in the form of stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination occur together. The preconceived notions or beliefs about a particular social group (stereotypes) often lead to the experience of a certain affective state (prejudice) as a consequence. This is often reflected in behavioral reaction (discrimination) eventually.
5. Discuss the ways of resolving intergroup conflict.
Ans:
6. What are some factors that can contribute to intergroup conflict, and how do they impact the dynamics between different social groups?
Ans: Factors affecting intergroup conflict
- a. Distrust and a sense of injustice: At times, due to certain existing stereotypes, members of a particular group develop distrust towards the other group members. They start believing that the other group is deliberately trying to harm them and put them at a disadvantage, at times clearly ignoring the situational factors that might have contributed to the not-so-favorable events.Â
- b. Faulty Communication-related issues: Lapses in communication create an environment of mistrust, leading to conflict-like situations. Also, if harsh statements and angry exchanges are made, a tendency to retaliate gets triggered in the receiver, which could lead to conflicts.
- c. Egocentrism/Tendency to perceive one’s group as perfect: Trusting and having faith in the group’s abilities and decision-making skills is important for group members to be able to continue with their association with the group. However, if this leads to a closed mindset wherein a group develops a tendency to consider only its actions as logical and appropriate while degrading other groups’ actions and belief systems, then a conflict-like situation may emerge.
- d. Vulnerability: At the group level, a belief that they are susceptible to some kind of damage or harm evokes a sense of vulnerability, which gets manifested in the form of uncertainty or fear about the future and can lead to intergroup conflict.
7. What are some strategies that can be used to reduce prejudice and stereotypes, both in terms of controlling the sources of attitude formation and altering established patterns of thinking and behaviour?
Ans: Prejudice and stereotypes can be reduced by employing various strategies. Firstly, it’s important to note that since these attitudes are acquired through learning and exposure to various sources of information such as books, newspapers, advertisements, movies etc., controlling these sources would be the first step in handling stereotypes and prejudice. Certain strategies that can be employed are:
- 1. Ensuring that any form of biased and negative beliefs and behavior is not positively reinforced in any form. We have already learnt that attitudes are acquired through instrumental conditioning, wherein the behavior and beliefs that are followed by a positive reinforcement get strengthened. Along these lines, if children are discouraged the very first time they express stereotyped and prejudiced beliefs, then their tendency to engage in similar behavior in the future will be weakened.
- 2. Ensuring that children as well as adults are exposed to role models that do not encourage any form of stereotypical thoughts and prejudice. If children are exposed to positive role models that display an inclusive and non-discriminatory attitude towards members of different social groups, then a similar attitude gets instilled in them. Also, exposure to instances where an individual has been reprimanded or penalized for engaging in prejudiced behavior can also discourage children from following their footsteps.
- 3. Narrow social identity based on any form of group affiliation should not be encouraged.
- 4. De-emphasize in-group-out-group categorization. Individuals should be discouraged from exaggerating boundaries between their social group and other social groups. It is important to emphasize the similarities that people share across different social groups or categories rather than focusing on the differences.
- 5. Developing an inclusive and encompassing attitude so that individuals can appreciate and respect the diversity and heterogeneity of various types of social groups.
8. What is the relationship between strong social identity and prejudice, and how does it lead to ingroup bias?
Ans: Individuals who have a strong sense of social identity and have a very positive attitude towards their own group often hold negative attitudes towards other groups. Thus, they often engage in prejudice and discrimination as these negative evaluations about other groups help them to enhance their positive feelings towards their own group. Their own group becomes the in-group, and the other group becomes the out-group for them.
9. What are the three components of an attitude, as described in the A-B-C model?
Ans: All definitions of attitudes agree that an attitude is a state of the mind, a set of views, or thoughts, regarding some topic (called the ‘attitude object’), which has an evaluative feature (positive, negative, or neutral quality). It is accompanied by an emotional component and a tendency to act in a particular way concerning the attitude object. The thought component is referred to as the cognitive aspect, the emotional component is known as the affective aspect, and the tendency to act is called the behavioural (or cognitive) aspect. Taken together, these three aspects have been referred to as the A-B-C components (Affective-Behavioural- Cognitive components) of attitude.
10. How can attitude be learned or acquired through classical conditioning, operant conditioning, modelling, social comparison, group and cultural norms, and exposure to information?
Ans:
- Attitude Formation through Classical Conditioning: Classical conditioning is a basic form of learning in which an initially neutral stimulus acquires the potential to evoke responses through repeated pairing with another stimulus. For example, a student may not show any emotional response to a fountain pen he/she has recently purchased. However, it so happened that each time the student wrote the exam with this pen, he/she scored very good marks. This may lead the student to associate happiness with that pen.
- Attitude Formation through Operant Conditioning: Instrumental conditioning is another basic form of learning in which responses that lead to positive/rewarding outcomes or that is instrumental in avoiding negative outcomes are strengthened.
- Attitude Formation through Modelling: Formation of attitude is also possible through the process of observational learning/modelling. Several behaviors are learned by watching the activities of others and the outcome of such activities. For example, A child may watch his/her grandparents being respected and taken care of by everyone in the family. The child may acquire the same behavioral patterns and develop a positive attitude towards aged people in general.
- Attitude Formation through Social Comparison: Attitude may also be formed through the process of social comparison, according to which we are constantly comparing ourselves with others with the desire to hold ‘right’ views about social reality. This comparison may lead us to acquire attitudes from people we admire or people who serve as a frame of reference for us.
- Learning attitudes through group or cultural norms: Very often, we learn attitudes through the norms of our group or culture. Norms are unwritten rules about behavior that people are expected to show under specific circumstances. Over time, these norms may get reflected in our attitudes.
- Learning through exposure to information: A person may acquire a certain attitude on the basis of the information that he/she is exposed to. The sources of information can be many, such as newspapers, books, the internet, TV, movies, and so on. For example, these days, a lot of online campaigns regarding waste management are being circulated. This information helps help young children to adopt a positive attitude towards waste management by gaining information about the process of waste management as well as its benefits.
Additional Study Materials
- NIOS Class 12 Psychology Syllabus Bifurcation
- NIOS Class 12 Sample Question Paper
- Diversity and Individual Variations
- Self and Personality
- Intelligence
- Group Processes
