Notes: Write your answer in the space given below and compare your answer with those given at the end of this unit.
1. An individual’s record of past events and experiences is:
(a) Learning
(b) Perception
(c) Memory
(d) Sensation
Ans: (c) Memory
2. Which one of the following is not included in the stages of memory?
(a) Encoding
(b) Rehearsal
(c) Storage
(d) Retrieval
Ans: (b) Rehearsal
3. Recall and ________ are the two types of retrieval.
Ans: Recognition
INTEXT QUESTIONS 8.2
Notes: Write your answer in the space given below and compare it with the answers given at the end of the unit.
1. Information processing model was proposed by _________ and __________.
Ans: Atkinson and Shiffrin
2. Sensory memory has _______ duration and _______ capacity.
Ans: Shorter and Large
3. Elaborative rehearsal is used to transfer the information from sensory memory to short-term memory. (True/False)
Ans: False
4. Procedural memory is a subtype of implicit memory. (True/False)
Ans: True
INTEXT QUESTIONS 8.3
1. Hermann Ebbinghaus utilised the concept of nonsense syllables or _____ trigrams in his experiment on forgetting.
Ans: CVC
2. When the old information is difficult to recall because it is blocked by the new information, it is called ________ interference.
Ans: Retroactive
3. The acronym PQRST stands for Preview, Question, ____, Self-recitation, and ____.
Ans: Read and Test
TERMINAL QUESTIONS
1. Define the nature and processes of memory.
Ans: Memory involves the processing of vast amounts of information in different forms, such as echoic, iconic, and meaning. Memory serves several functions. First, memory provides continuity for the conscious mind. Second, it helps in effectively dealing with situations at hand by utilizing essential skills. Third, it helps enrich our social and emotional experiences through effective planning and performance.
Memory processes can be understood in three stages. They can be easily memorised as 3R’s of memory (register, retain, retrieve).
2. Elaborate on Atkinson and Shiffrin’s model of information processing.
Ans: Atkinson and Shiffrin noticed that human memory and computer systems process information in a similar fashion, where information passes through the three stages of memory: encoding, storage, and retrieval. This model proposes three systems of memory and therefore is also sometimes called the stage. These systems are Sensory Memory, Short-term Memory, and Long-term Memory.
Sensory Memory: Information from the environment first enters the sensory memory through the senses. However, it stays for a very short duration, i.e., less than a second.
Short-term Memory: Information that is attended by the sensory system enters the short-term memory (STM). Short-term memory holds limited information for a brief period of time, which is more than sensory memory but less than long-term memory, i.e., less than 30 seconds.
Long-term Memory: Information enters the final stage of memory, which is long-term memory, through elaborative rehearsal. It has a vast capacity for an unlimited period of time, as it is a permanent storehouse of all information.
3. Describe forgetting and its causes.
Ans: Ebbinghaus proposed the model of forgetting, which states that the rate of forgetting is maximum in the first nine hours, particularly during the first hour. After that, the rate slows dow,n and not much is forgotten even after many days.
Several theories state the cause of forgetting in their own unique style.
Trace decay: This theory states that memory leads to relatively permanent physical change in our central nervous system. These changes in the brain are referred to as memory traces. Memory traces stay in the brain if constantly used, but they tend to disappear or fade away if not used for a long period of time. The fading away of these memory traces causes forgetting of learned material or information.
Interference theory: It states that forgetting occurs due to the interference between learned or memorized information. This theory assumes that learning or memorizing occurs due to the formation of an association between old and new information. Forgetting, according to this, occurs when either the new information interferes with the recollection of old information or when old information interferes with the learning of new information.
4. Discuss the various techniques of enhancing memory.
Ans: Some techniques for enhancing memory.
The Keyword Method: In the keyword method, we try to learn or memorize new information by forming connections with old information. To be able to learn the new language faster and better, you use similar-sounding words of your mother tongue or old already learned languages. This similar-sounding world helps you retain the new language better.
The Method of Loci: To use the method of loci, items you want to remember are placed as objects arranged in a physical space in the form of visual images. This method is particularly helpful in remembering items in a serial order. It requires that you first visualize objects/places that you know well in a specific sequence, imagine the objects you want to remember, and associate them one by one with the physical locations.
Mnemonics using organization: Organization refers to imposing a certain order on the material you want to remember. Mnemonics of this kind are helpful because of the framework you create, which makes the retrieval task fairly easy.
Chunking: Under this, several smaller units are combined to form large chunks. For creating chunks, it is important to discover some organizational principles that can link smaller units. Therefore, apart from being a control mechanism to increase the capacity of short-term memory, chunking can be used to improve memory as well.
Give Yourself Enough Retrieval Cues: While you learn something, think of the retrieval cues inherent in your study material. Identify them and link parts of the study material to these cues. Cues will be easier to remember compared to the entire content, and the links you have created between cues and the content will facilitate the retrieval process.
PQRST: Thomas and Robinson have developed another strategy to help students remember more, which they call the methods of PQRST. This acronym stands for Preview, Question, Read, Self-recitation, and Test. Preview refers to giving a cursory look at the chapter and familiarizing oneself with its contents.
5. What is the role of learning and memory in daily life tasks, and why are they essential mental processes for good academic performance?
Ans: Learning plays a central role in every sphere of life, whether social or personal. But learning is not the only mental process essential in maintaining and performing daily life tasks; memory also plays an integral function. Memory is a central cognitive process that plays a vital role in human life. Memory helps us to retain the learned information, experiences of the past and present, which contribute to performing plans and actions. Memory facilitates the process of learning. We have to be dependent on memory to recall facts, events, and experiences.
6. What are the three stages of memory processes, and how do they work?
Ans: Memory processes can be understood in three stages. They can be easily memorised as 3R’s of memory (register, retain, retrieve):
Encoding (or registration): Encoding is the process of converting the sensory information coming from the environment that can be registered in the memory system. There are three steps involved in the encoding process: receiving, processing, and combining information. For example, you listen to a song at a party, and you like this song, so you try to understand its lyrics. When you convert this auditory signal into an echoic unit so that it can be stored in the memory system, it is called the process of encoding.
Storage (retention): Storage is the process of converting the incoming information into permanent records so that it can be accessed later when needed. To take the example forward, once you understand the lyrics, you try to store it in memory either through maintenance rehearsal (by mere repetition of the song) or through elaborative rehearsal (when you comprehend the meaning and associate it with your own feelings). This is called the process of storage.
Retrieval (recall, or recognition): Retrieval is the process of locating and leveling the stored information from the storehouse to the consciousness at the time of need. Now imagine that you are enjoying some leisure time and feel like singing a song, so you would perhaps recall the song you encoded and stored. Once retrieved, you would play it and probably sing along with it. This represents the process of retrieval of memory.
7. What are the two types of memory and their subtypes, as classified based on different criteria? What is the difference between implicit and explicit memory and their subtypes?
Ans: Memory can be divided into two types, i.e., implicit and explicit memory.
Implicit memory: It is also referred to as unconscious memory or automatic memory. Implicit memory is the type of memory wherein the task is performed without putting conscious efforts in processing or recalling previous experiences or information. For example, walking is the function of implicit memory because the process of walking happens automatically or without mental effort.
Procedural memory is a subtype of implicit memory. It is required for those tasks where motor skills are required. For example, while riding a cycle, a cyclist does not need to recall the steps of riding each time.
Explicit memory: It refers to declarative memory, which requires conscious effort in recalling previous experiences and information. Declarative memory involves both episodic and semantic memory.
Episodic memory: It is a type of memory that stores information related to events and connections between those events. It refers to personal experiences. Example: I have a Psychology class tomorrow at 9:30 A.M.; My birthday is on 20th December every year.
Semantic memory: In contrast to episodic memory, semantic memory includes the organized knowledge that is general in nature. Example: Indira Gandhi was the first woman prime minister of India, or Hg is the symbol of Mercury.
8. What are the two main theories of forgetting according to Ebbinghaus’ model of forgetting? How do they explain the cause of forgetting?
Ans: Ebbinghaus proposed the model of forgetting, which states that the rate of forgetting is maximum in the first nine hours, particularly during the first hour. After that, the rate slows down, and not much is forgotten even after many days.
Several theories state the cause of forgetting in their own unique style.
Trace decay: This theory states that memory leads to relatively permanent physical change in our central nervous system. These changes in the brain are referred to as memory traces. Memory traces stay in the brain if constantly used, but they tend to disappear or fade away if not used for a long period of time. The fading away of these memory traces causes forgetting of learned material or information.
Interference theory: It states that forgetting occurs due to the interference between learned or memorized information. This theory assumes that learning or memorizing occurs due to the formation of an association between old and new information. Forgetting, according to this, occurs when either the new information interferes with the recollection of old information or when old information interferes with the learning of new information. Two of the most referred types of interferences are:
Proactive interference: (Forward moving) means when the old information interferes with the successful recollection of new information. For example, imagine that your old car number was 2333 and your new (present) car number is 4535. When asked by the traffic officer, you say the old car number. This immediate recollection of old information and blocking of new information by old information is called proactive interference.
Retroactive Interference: (Backward moving) means when the old information is difficult to recall because it is blocked by the new information. For example, imagine you have changed your mobile number. After sometime when asked about the old number you were using, you are unable to recall it. This is an example of retroactive interference.
9. Draw and explain Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve.
Ans: Hermann Ebbinghaus was the first psychologist who systematically study the nature of forgetting. He utilised nonsense syllables or Consonant Vowel Consonant (CVC) trigrams in his experiment, where he attempted to measure the nature of forgetting in terms of the number of trials a participant took to relearn the same list at varying time intervals. Based on this experiment, Ebbinghaus proposed the model of forgetting, which states that the rate of forgetting is maximum in the first nine hours, particularly during the first hour. After that, the rate slows down and not much is forgotten even after many days.
10. What are the functions of memory, and how does it contribute to our conscious experiences and daily life activities?
Ans: Memory serves several functions.
First, memory provides continuity for the conscious mind.
Second, it helps in effectively dealing with situations at hand by utilizing essential skills.
Third, it helps enrich our social and emotional experiences through effective planning and performance.